Levels of Information

Any business organisation is not managed by a single group of managers. in a typical business organisation three levels of Management exist:

1. Top-level management
2. Middle-level management
3. Lower-level management

The number of managers at the lowest levels is the highest which decreases when we move upward in the pyramid. These three groups of managers have a different type of decisions and for the same purpose, they require a different type of information.

Levels of Management                    

Lower level management: The lower level Management is concern with operational control and sees day-to-day function. The need for information in this group of managers is detailed. Since lower-level managers required information for the proper working of daily operations, the decisions made by this group is related to short term requirement of operational control.

Middle-level management: The middle-level management take decisions on tactical issues and is involved in planning for a period of considerable length. The information required by these managers is little summarised say for months, quarters or years as required.

Top level management: The top-level management takes decisions and performs strategic planning for 3-5 years that is for the long term. The information required by this group is highly summarised. In this level, the number of managers is less, since in this level decisions are taken for the long term. 

Going from lower level to higher level management the characteristics for decision making and information required at different managerial levels may be presented as- 

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Information

Information is a data relevant for a particular situation, process and organise, so as to help decision makers to take effective decisions by reducing the uncertainty associated with the decision situation. when we talk of organisational resources of business organisation we think about money, manpower and material which are the resources of any organisation. Since organisations are open and dynamic, they have to adapt themselves according to their environment, the changes in an organisation are brought about by managerial decisions. The decisions made by management depends on the information about the organisation as well as about the environment. The information like who all are various vendors, competitors and other firms that have captured the market is very important information for an organisation.

Need for information
Information is data relevant to a particular situation, process and organised as to help DSS (decision support system) to make decisions. Information is needed because-

• We process data to present it in a form which is most suitable for the decision.
• Timely available or relevant information give competitive advantage.
• The flow of information controls performance of various organisational activities.
• Information helps to perform various task within an organisation in a planned manner.
• We need to understand decisions and their content for design of an effective information system.
• Information reduces the uncertainty associated with decisions, thereby minimise dissociative risks.

Types of Information

1. Strategical information
2. Tactical information
3. Operational information

1. Statistical information- It is used at the very top level of management within an organisation these are chief executives or directors who are responsible to take decisions for a long-term so it is a long-term, long-range planning driving to achieve the result.

2. Tactical information- It is the tactical planning and decision that take place within the guidelines set by strategic plans. These tactical plans will be very specific. They deal with such matters like who is doing what and within what specific budget and what time scale. It is a short term, short-range planning involving various skills.

3. Operational information- It is the lowest level of information based on the tactical plan. The working in an organisation implements operational plans. Results of operational plans will be passed upward to let the tactical planner evaluate their plans. So it is the day-to-day logistics and routine operation.

DSS- Decision Support System
MIS- Management Information System
OAS- Office Automation System

Principles and Types of a System

There are 5 major principles that guide good system design.

1. Principle of Decomposition: This principle deals with being able to break down an information system into various components. The components of sub-system are further broken down into smaller sub-system depending on their functions. The idea is to decompose a complex system in successive layers of the main system is decomposed into successive sub-systems until the lowest level of sub-systems is of manageable complexity.
2. Principle of Simplification: This principle signifies the inter-connection between system components and a mathematical formula is used to identify such interconnections. This principle is the process of organising sub-systems so as to reduce the number of interfaces between system components if there are n sub-systems then interfaces will be determined by the formula-   n(n-1)/2
3. Principle of modularity: This principle divides the system into modules of uniform sub-systems. These modules can represent an information system simply making it not only understandable but also easier to be built.
4. Principle of coupling: Coupling is extent to which system components are dependent to each other, it is the strength of interconnection between modulus for a measure of interdependence among sub-systems. It is a degree to which a component or module is connected to the other module. It is independent or inter module concept while designing a system we should strive for low coupling. Therefore dependency between the module will be less.
5. Principle of cohesion: It is the extent to which a module performs a single function. It is the indication of relationships within module. it represent how tightly bound the internal elements of a module to one another, it shows the models relative function strength. It is intra module interdependent concept while design assystem we should strive for high cohesion i.e. cohesive component focuses on a single task with little interaction with other modules of a system.

Types of system 

1.  Physical and Abstract system: Physical systems are tangible entities which we can feel and touch. For example- fan, monitor etc. Physical system could be static or dynamic. For example: steel cabinet is a static physical system whereas an air-condition is dynamic physical system which responds to the environment and changes with time. Abstract system all conceptual means they are based on concepts they may be formulas, representation or model of a system. These systems are used to understand the physical system, their components and their inter-relationships.
2. Probabilistic and deterministic system: Probabilistic system shows probable behaviour and acts in an unpredictable manner, hair the exact output is not known. There is always chances of degree of error in system. In deterministic system interaction among the components is known with certainty. Hence, occurrence of all the events at predictable or known. The stepwise execution is done and output is already known.
3. Permanent and temporary system: Permanent system persist for longer period of time whereas temporary system is made for some time and after that, they are dissolved.
4. Machine and natural system: The systems made by man are known as machine system also known as artificial system whereas systems agar in nature natural system. 
5. Open and closed system: An open system is defined as one that exchanges information material or energy with the environment. Biological systems and business organisation open system. Open system interacts with its environment by receiving inputs from and delivering outputs to outside environment and they possess permeable boundaries through which new ideas and information are absorbed. They can adapt more quickly according to changes in external environment through which day operate. As the environment influences the system also influences an environment. An open system regularly exchanges the feedback with its external environment, analyse the feedback and adjust the internal system to achieve system goal.

Characteristics of Open and Closed System

1. Inputs from outside: Open systems are self-adjusting and self-regulated and function properly. An open system reaches a steady state called equilibrium.
2. Entropy: The system tendency is to lose energy over time open systems resist entropy by seeking new inputs or modifying the process to return a steady state.
3. Equifinality: It means that same or similar results can be achieved by using variety of different processes.
4. Differentiation: Open system has a tendency towards and increasing speciality. The role of machine and people turned towards greater specialisation. Closed system is defined as one which does not interact with the environment it resist incorporating new ideas and cannot adapt according to the environment such systems are subject to increase in entropy and disorder. For e.g. chemical reaction in a sealed isolated container.

Characteristics and elements of system

Characteristics of a system

Any of the system causes certain characteristics: 

1. Organisation: It is the arrangement of components in particular order to achieve and objective it implies structure and order. The proper arrange arrangement controls the proper flow of communication.
2. Interaction: Interaction refer to the manner in which each component functions with other component function. For example: In computer system the CPU must interact with input device to solve problems. So input data must be stored in in RAM so that ALU data might compute it. The computed result should be displayed in monitor and must be stored if needed. Therefore, all the components work together to perform the computation.
3. Interdependence: It means that parts of organisation depend on each other. They are coordinated and linked together according to their plan. One subsystem depends on another subsystem for proper functioning i.e. the output of one system is the required input for the another system, no subsystem can function in isolation. Interdependency is required to perform functions efficiently.
4. Integration: It refers to wholish of a system it is concerned with how is system is tied together. It is more than sharing 9 physical part or location. It means that part of a system work together within a system even though each component performs a unique function. Successful integration will typically produce synergistic effect and greater total impact than if each component work separately.
5. Central objective: The last characteristic of a system is central objective. Objective may be real or stated. Although stated objective maybe the real objective, it is not uncommon for an organisation state one objective and operate to achieve other. The important part is that users must know Central objective of the system.

Key Elements of a System

1. Input and output: The main objective of any system is to generate output required by the user. the output can be in the form of goods, services and information. whatever the nature of the output, it must meet with the expectations of the user. Inputs are the elements like material, human resources, information.
2. Process: It is the operational component of a system. It involves the actual conversion of inputs into output based on the specification of outputs. Processor may modify inputs totally or partially.
3. Control: It regulate the system operation. It is the decision making sub-system that controls the activity related to input, processing and output.
4. Feedback: Feedback measures output against standard in some form of procedures that include communication and control. It is true that that control in a dynamic system is ensured. What information is feedback to the input or process for deliberation. Output of a system needs to be observed and feedback from the output to taken so as to improve the system and make it achieve the latest standards. Feedback may be negative or positive routine or information. Positive feedback strengthens the performance of a system and negative feedback generally provides the control for information or action. 
5. Environment: The environment is Supriya system with which an organisation function. It is the source of external elements that make an input on the system. It often determines how system must operate. Every system whether it is natural or man-made co-exist with an environment. it is very important for a system to adapt itself to its environment.
6. Boundary and interfaces: Every system has defined a boundary within which it operates. Boundaries are the limits that identify the systems complete components, processes and interrelationship and then interacts with other system. Boundaries of each system determines its range of influence and control. Big system may be seen as a set of interacting small systems known as a sub-system or functional unit each of which has its defined task. All the sub-system work in coordination to achieve overall objective of a system.

Introduction to System Analysis and Design

System analysis and design mainly deal with these systems or software development activities.
SAD includes how to shape the organisation, improve performance and achieve objective for profitability and growth. Organisations are complex system that consist of inter-related sub-systems. Changes in one part of system have anticipated and unanticipated consequences in other parts of the system. It provides a framework for visualising the organisational and environmental factors that operate on a  system.

What is System?

System is created to solve problems. The system approach is an organised way of dealing with a problem in the living world. Many of the systems are running like system running in human body which make complete natural system. There are many natural systems like political system, education system and economic system and so on. And one very important system is the information system i.e., the computer system.

The word system is derived from the greek word systema which means organised relationship between components.

System is defined as arrranged in an orderly manner to accomplish an objective. It is not a randomly arranged set. It is arranged with some logic governed by rules, and regulations and policies such an arrangement is also influenced by the objectives. 
For example: the computer system designed to perform commercial purposes then that elements will be data entry devices, CPU, memory, application program and a printer. 
If a computer is designed to complete the objectives of engineer and drawing processes then the elements will be graphic processor, design application software and plotters for output.